What is NAC?

The body uses N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to make its own antioxidants. Medically, NAC is used to treat acetaminophen toxicity; it is almost 100% effective, as long as it’s given within the first eight hours after overdose [R, R].

For all other purposes, NAC is an unapproved supplement. Preliminary evidence may look promising (and in some cases, very promising!), but future studies may find that NAC is actually ineffective for some of these purposes.

It’s important to talk to your doctor before adding NAC to your health strategies, as it may have unexpected interactions.

Potential Mental Health Applications of NAC

NAC supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use. Supplements generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them, but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective.

None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care. Always speak with your doctor before trying any new supplements or other health strategies.

Possibly Effective For…

1) Depression

Some very early research has suggested that NAC may help people with depression by [R, R]:

• Balancing brain glutamate levels
• Reducing inflammation
• Boosting the growth of new brain cells

According to one review of data from multiple individual studies (including data from 574 depression patients and healthy participants), NAC has been reported to potentially improve symptoms of depression and overall daily functioning within 3-6 months of use [R].

Additionally, it has been reported to improve mood in depression patients after 3-4 months [R, R].

NAC may also balance mood by reducing oxidative stress in the brain. For example, one study of 76 depressed patients has reported that those who took NAC had higher brain antioxidant levels [R].

Insufficient Evidence For…

The following purported benefits are only supported by limited, small-scale clinical studies. In other words, there is currently insufficient evidence to conclusively support the use of NAC for any of the uses or applications listed below — and much more research will be needed before any of these potential applications can be confirmed and officially approved for medical use.

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What is NAC?

Your body uses N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to make its own antioxidants. Medically, it is used to treat acetaminophen toxicity; it is almost 100% effective as long as it’s given within the first eight hours after overdose [R, R].

For all other purposes, NAC is an unapproved supplement. Preliminary evidence may look promising (and in some cases, very promising!), but future studies may find that NAC is actually ineffective for some of these purposes.

It’s important to talk to your doctor before adding NAC to your health strategies, as it may have unexpected interactions.

Antioxidant Activity

NAC (short for N-Acetyl Cysteine) is transformed into the amino acid cysteine in the body.

Why should you care about cysteine? For one, it is the most important amino acid (along with glycine and glutamine) for the formation of glutathione, the body’s strongest antioxidant [R].

In other words, if glutathione is “the mother of all antioxidants,” then cysteine would be the grandmother.

Since cysteine levels can determine how much and how fast glutathione is made, NAC is essential in replenishing levels of this antioxidant. Glutathione (reduced glutathione or GSH) removes free radicals from cells and activates detox pathways [R, R].

Cysteine also contains sulfur, which is essential for glutathione to work. Aside from boosting glutathione, NAC can directly fight free radicals [R, R].

Its antioxidant effects protect DNA, cells, tissues, and organs from damage, inflammation, and harmful substances. For this reason, its benefits range from brain protection to liver support to balancing mood. NAC can also break down and soften mucus, which can improve symptoms of lung diseases [R, R].

Importantly, NAC has been thoroughly researched. The number of clinical, animal, and cell studies that explored the benefits of NAC are almost impossible to list. There are close to a thousand clinical trials of NAC alone!

However, while most studies on NAC have found at least marginal benefits, a lot have had mixed results. That’s why the FDA still considered the evidence insufficient to recommend NAC for most health conditions.

NAC Side Effects & Precautions

Side Effects

NAC seems to be a safe substance with few known side effects. Occasionally, oral supplements can cause digestive issues such as [R, R, R]:

• Nausea
• Vomiting

The post What is NAC? Side Effects, Dosage, Mechanism, Reviews appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Taurine?

Taurine (L-Taurine or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) is a sulfur-containing amino acid [R, R].

Taurine is present in almost any tissue in the body and concentrated in key areas such as the heart, brain, and retina of the eye. A taurine-rich diet can protect the body and promote longevity. Yet taurine has a bad reputation because it’s a popular ingredient in unhealthy energy drinks.

Taurine plays various important roles in the body including regulation of water status in our cells, preventing oxidation in the body, and supporting calcium signaling in key organs. Through calcium regulation properties, it helps to improve the function of cardiac, nervous and musculoskeletal tissue.

Humans are able to produce taurine, but not in sufficient quantities under all conditions. Therefore, taurine is a conditionally essential amino acid for humans, and nutritionists recommend getting some from diet. Some people who can easily become taurine deficient include premature and newborn infants and chronic liver, heart, and kidney disease patients [R, R].

Taurine is an osmolyte. This means it controls water entry and exit in cells and stops them from changing the cell too much in size. It interacts with fats in cell membranes and stabilizes them, preventing structural changes to the cell [R, R].

Despite the impressive range of positive effects taurine has on the body, its exact mechanisms of action still remain largely unknown [R].

How the Body Makes Taurine

Taurine is synthesized within the body from the only two other sulfur-containing amino acids: methionine and cysteine [R].

Taurine synthesis mostly takes place in the liver, with the help of the enzyme cysteine sulfinic acid and vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) [R, R, R, R].

Other cells in our bodies are able to take up taurine from the blood thanks to the special taurine transporter (TauT) molecule that is found on cell membranes [R].

Taurine is an essential nutrient for newborn children as they are yet not able to synthesize or retain taurine within their bodies. Breast milk contains the full taurine requirement for infants, as does modern day baby formula [R, R].

How the

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What Are BCAAs?

There are three BCAAs: leucine, isoleucine, and valine, which are all essential amino acids – not produced by the body but needed for survival [R, R].

BCAAs are the largest collection of amino acids in the body, accounting for up to 35% of muscle proteins. These amino acids (especially leucine) stimulate protein production in the muscles, possibly helping with muscle building and recover [R, R, R].

They also seem to promote sugar storage in the muscles. In animal studies, BCAAs (especially isoleucine) promoted blood glucose uptake into the muscles while blocking muscle carbohydrate (glycogen) breakdown [R, R].

Normally, BCAAs are excreted rapidly. BCAA intermediates can be toxic at high concentrations, so functional BCAA breakdown is vital. Because BCAAs are broken down in the muscle rather than in the liver, they are thought to help produce energy during exercise [R, R, R].

BCAA formulas have been on the market since 1996, mainly for treating liver diseases such as cirrhosis and hypoalbuminemia [R].

Nowadays, BCAAs are mainly used by bodybuilders for exercise purposes, to increase energy, and boost protein synthesis (especially leucine) [R].

Snapshot

Proponents

• Essential amino acids
• Approved for nitrogen loss
• May help recover from exercise and increase body lean mass
• May help with liver cirrhosis and its complications

Skeptics

• Unclear effects on exercise performance
• Excessive supplementation may trigger type 2 diabetes and ALS
• May cause high ammonia levels
• May interfere with the uptake of other essential amino acids
• Not recommended in people with insulin resistance, McArdle’s disease, and maple syrup urine disease

Health Benefits

Effective for:

Nitrogen Loss

An injectable 4% BCAA formulation (BranchAmin) is approved by the FDA as a nitrogen source in people with severe nitrogen loss due to poor protein absorption or septic shock [R].

The post Benefits of Branched Chain Amino Acid (BCAA) Supplements appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Histidine?

Histidine (L-histidine) is one of the 20 amino acids that make up the proteins in our body. These building blocks are generally classified as either nonessential or essential. Nonessential amino acids are those that the body can produce by itself, while essential amino acids must be acquired through diet because the body cannot make its own supply [R].

Histidine is an essential amino acid. A long-term study demonstrated that adults who consume a diet deficient in histidine over long periods of time may experience negative health effects such as reduced hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells) levels [R, R, R].

Histidine is produced by the liver in small quantities. Hence, it must be consumed in the diet to maintain necessary histidine levels in the body. Here, it is converted into a number of important substances such as histamine and carnosine [R, R, R].

Function

Histidine is required for the growth and repair of tissues, red blood cell production, and protecting tissues from damage from radiation and heavy metals. It is especially necessary for the formation of myelin sheaths, which are layers surrounding nerves that enables faster transmission of signals to the brain [R, R].

In both human and animal studies, histidine functioned in maintaining normal levels of hemoglobin, the protein responsible for delivering oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body [R, R].

Urocanic acid, produced through histidine, is a major absorber of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This protects skin cells from damage [R, R].

Additionally, it is converted to histamine, a messenger molecule involved in immunity, digestion, and sexual function [R, R].

It is also a major component (along with β-alanine) of carnosine, an important antioxidant that slows the progression of multiple degenerative diseases and reduces plaque buildup in the arteries. It

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What is Whey Protein?

Whey protein is a mixture of proteins found in the commonly discarded liquid portion produced during the cheese manufacturing process. It is found in the milk of nearly all animals, including humans.

Whey protein is rich in vitamins, minerals, and essential amino acids needed for muscle growth. Along with many other minor proteins, ⍺-lactalbumin and β-lactalbumin are the two major proteins found in whey [R].

Casein is the most abundant protein in milk, while whey protein accounts for roughly 20%.

Mechanism of Effect

Whey protein is a high-quality protein supplement providing large amounts of rapidly and easily digestible amino acids. Whey protein promotes greater growth of muscle due to the availability of these amino acids, which are the muscle’s building blocks [R].

Muscle growth can only be achieved if the rate of muscle building is greater than the breakdown of muscle protein [R].

Antioxidant Precursor

Whey protein contains a large supply of the amino acid cysteine, which is a precursor of glutathione, a powerful antioxidant made by the body [R].

Glutathione is responsible for, among other things, preventing the type of cellular damage which could otherwise progress to cancer [R, R].

Whey Protein Types

Isolate (WPI)

This isolated form of whey protein is the most concentrated form of whey protein (90 – 95%) while containing little lactose and fat. WPI is great for those with lactose intolerance but usually comes at a higher price [R].

Concentrate (WPC)

Whey protein concentrate is popular among athletes due to its large range of protein content (25 – 89%), lots of fat, and biologically-active components [R, R].

Hydrolyzed

Hydrolyzed whey protein is produced when hot acid and/or enzymes break down whey proteins into smaller more quickly and easily digestible protein. This “predigested” protein may enhance muscle protein synthesis [R].

The post 8+ Scientific Health Benefits of Whey Protein + Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Tryptophan Deficiency Symptoms & Associated Conditions

Tryptophan levels are a marker of nutritional status. Low or high levels don’t necessarily indicate a problem if there are no symptoms or if your doctor tells you not to worry about it.

Studies on the effects of tryptophan deficiency deplete this amino acid through a process called acute tryptophan depletion, where a patient is given a beverage of 15 different amino acids excluding tryptophan [R].

Drinking the beverage produces two effects:

1. Stored tryptophan is decreased when the liver produces proteins [R].
2. Other amino acids compete with tryptophan in crossing the blood-brain barrier thereby reducing the levels of tryptophan in the brain [R].

In a real-world setting, tryptophan deficiency is rare in developed countries and usually not severe enough to produce the effects described below [R].

1) Motion Sickness

A study of 76 people showed that tryptophan depletion intensifies dizziness, nausea, and the illusion of movement after induced motion sickness [R].

2) Mood Impairment

Depression worsened in healthy males after tryptophan depletion [R].

A study showed that patients with a family history of mental disorders were more likely to worsen their mood after tryptophan depletion [R].

Another study was able to show that women were more likely to feel the mood-worsening effect since gender affects serotonin production (males produce serotonin 52% faster than females) [R, R].

3) Memory Decline

In a study of 30 patients, those with lowered tryptophan levels did worse in pattern recognition tests [R].

Another double-blind trial of 27 volunteers showed that tryptophan depletion impaired long-term memory in word recall and recognition tests [R].

Another study showed that women were more prone to these memory-damaging effects than men [R].

4) Depression Worsening

A study of 21 patients on antidepressants showed that lowering tryptophan levels caused the patients to return to their depressed states more often [R].

5) Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

SAD is a disorder where the patient experiences depression based on seasons, mainly during the winter.

Two small studies

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What is Tryptophan?

Tryptophan is one of the 8 essential amino acids, meaning it is vital but cannot be produced by the body. Hence, tryptophan must be supplied from dietary sources [R].

L-tryptophan is the natural version of the amino acid and a building block of protein in the body.

In humans, tryptophan is not stored for long periods and therefore has the lowest concentration in the body among all the amino acids. However, only small amounts of tryptophan are required [R].

Foods

Common foods that contain tryptophan include oats, bananas, dried prunes, milk, tuna fish, cheese, bread, chicken, turkey, peanuts, and chocolate [R].

Why Is It Important?

Tryptophan is converted to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) in the brain, which produces serotonin [R, R].

Tryptophan absorption into the brain is influenced by diet.

A high carbohydrate, low protein diet will release insulin, which ultimately increases the absorption of tryptophan into the brain and can, therefore, increase serotonin. This is the mechanism by which eating carbs may increase serotonin [R].

BCAAs compete with tryptophan absorption into the brain. Eating a high protein diet (high BCAAs) will cause less tryptophan to enter the brain, thus reducing serotonin levels [R].

However, higher protein diets usually have higher tryptophan, which can cancel out the effect from the BCAAs.

Health Benefits

Possibly Effective:

1) Sleep Quality and Insomnia

Tryptophan produces melatonin in the brain (pineal gland), the gut, the retina, and immune cells. Melatonin regulates the circadian rhythm and sleep patterns and is used as a supplement itself to help people sleep [R, R].

A study of 5 healthy volunteers showed that L-tryptophan supplementation increased average total sleep. All of them noticed some form of drowsiness a half hour before sleep [R].

In a study on 7 insomniac patients, L-tryptophan supplementation increased total sleep (by 28%). The supplementation also decreased early-morning wakefulness by an average of 37 minutes [R].

Tryptophan supplementation even helped induce sleep in manic patients. A study of 10 patients with mania showed improvements in total sleep after L-tryptophan

The post 8 Tryptophan Benefits + Foods, Dosage & Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Sarcosine?

Sarcosine (also known as N-methylglycine) is required to produce the amino acid glycine and is also a byproduct of glycine breakdown. In the body, it is produced by turning dietary choline into glycine, or by breaking down methionine to glycine [R].

It is also produced in the laboratory (from chloroacetic acid and methylamine) [R].

Sarcosine has a distinct mild, sweet flavor. An ingredient of toothpaste for decades, one derivative of sarcosine appears to help prevent cavities and cause foaming [R].

Sarcosine has other surprising health benefits. Studies over the past 2 decades uncovered its role in treating mental health disorders, including schizophrenia and depression [R, R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Some researchers believe that sarcosine’s apparent effects in different mental health disorders stem from its effect on 2 important receptors in the brain. In cell studies, sarcosine:

• Activated the NMDAR (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor): Sarcosine increased the activity of NMDAR in the same way as glycine. Both glycine and glutamate are required for increasing the activity of NMDAR, which is thought to bring about the therapeutic effects of sarcosine in schizophrenia and other mental health disorders [R, R].
• Blocked the GlyT1 (type 1 glycine) transporter: GlyT1 maintains glycine levels in the brain. Sarcosine blocks this transporter leading to glycine builds up in the brain (which then may increase the activity of NMDAR). This could improve the symptoms of mental health disorders, including schizophrenia [R, R].

Potential Benefits of Sarcosine

Sarcosine supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use and generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

Insufficient Evidence For

The following purported benefits are only supported by limited, low-quality clinical studies. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of sarcosine for any of the below-listed uses. Remember to speak with a doctor before taking sarcosine supplements, and never use it in place of something a doctor recommends or prescribes.

1) Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is

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What Is L-Arginine?

L-arginine is a conditionally essential amino acid that serves a variety of functions within the body. It is considered conditionally essential because healthy individuals can obtain enough of it from the diet and from synthesizing it within the body via the kidneys.

Nearly all protein-containing foods have arginine in them, with the only exception being gelatin. Particularly rich sources of arginine include fish and especially walnuts, with as much as 15% of the amino acids being comprised of L-arginine. L-arginine can also be made from citrulline via the proximal tubule cells in the kidneys.

The majority of L-arginine in the body is used to process ammonia into the less toxic urea, as well as to synthesize creatine and ornithine. A small portion is then used as a precursor to nitric oxide (NO), a compound that dilates blood vessels, lowers blood pressure, and helps maintain a healthy cardiovascular system [R].

Supplemental L-arginine is mainly used to achieve the benefits derived from converting this amino acid into nitric oxide.

L-Arginine Feedback Diagram

Source: [R]

Snapshot

Proponents

• Improves nitric oxide production, resulting in increased blood flow
• May prevent type 2 diabetes and its complications
• May boost immunity
• May help heal wounds
• Generally safe at food and normal supplemental doses

Skeptics

• Insufficient evidence for some benefits
• May trigger an autoimmune response
• May act as a laxative if taken on an empty stomach

Health Benefits of L-Arginine

Likely Effective for:

Improving Blood Flow

Nitric oxide is produced by cells in the body to reduce blood pressure and increase blood flow. It works to expand and relax

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What is Creatine?

Introduction

Creatine (α-methyl guanidine-acetic acid) is a substance naturally produced in the body from amino acids. Most of it is stored in muscle cells and released during physical activity. Creatine supplements raise muscle creatine stores, which enhances exercise performance and helps build muscles. Creatine food sources include meat and fish [R, R].

Most of the body’s creatine is stored in skeletal muscles (95%) as phosphocreatine; the remainder is found in the brain, kidney, and liver. Phosphocreatine is charged with powerful phosphate groups that release a large amount of energy when the muscles need it. The average person uses about 2 g/day of creatine while athletes and bodybuilders have much higher requirements [R].

Creatine has become one of the most widely used nutritional supplements. It’s one of the best-researched supplements for increasing muscle strength and power in athletes. Less known are its benefits beyond athletic performance, which extend to people with various muscle-wasting and neurological diseases [R].

Snapshot

PROs

• Safely increases muscle mass, strength, and exercise performance
• Reduces post-exercise fatigue
• Great for power training
• Protects the brain

CONs

• Doesn’t impact endurance-type or cardio exercise performance
• High doses may cause stomach discomfort or nausea

Power vs. Endurance Training

While almost every athlete has probably tried creatine at least once in their life, not everyone will experience the desired gains. Creatine is a safe and legal sports supplement but it’s not equally effective for all types of exercise. If you’re wondering when or if you should use creatine, have a close look at your exercise regime and your training goals [R].

Creatine will offer significant gains in strength and performance during high-intensity, short-duration, anaerobic training, i.e. high-power bursts aimed at increasing maximal output [R].

Creatine won’t have an effect on endurance-type, aerobic training, such as long-distance running and swimming. You’ll still see improvements in muscle mass and fatigue if you combine strength training alongside endurance-type sports [R].

To determine when to take creatine and how much you need, you should dive deeper to understand

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Methionine Restriction and Longevity

The Confusion

Some people assume that methionine is something that needs to be reduced in the diet in order to be optimally healthy.

But like almost everything else in biology, methionine is just not good or bad. We know that it is an essential amino acid – we need to get certain amounts of it from food to be in good health.

On the other hand, people come across some scary dangers of this amino acid searching the internet. From brain damage to heart disease risk, methionine seems to be everything but healthy.

To start with, methionine is considered safe in the amounts people take in with food. It’s also safe when used appropriately in medicinal amounts. Serious dangers occur only with using extremely high doses (orally or intravenously) [R, R].

This post is meant to clarify the health effects of methionine and whether there are any benefits to higher or lower levels.

Restriction Science

Animal studies suggested that restricting methionine consumption can increase lifespan, but this has never been confirmed in humans [R].

A 2005 study showed methionine restriction without calorie restriction extends mouse lifespan [R].

Several studies found that methionine restriction also inhibits certain aging-related disease processes in mice. But no proper human studies have investigated the effects of methionine on aging-related pathways and diseases in humans [R, R, R].

In rats, dietary methionine increases mitochondrial ROS production and DNA oxidative damage the liver. Researchers suspect that this is a plausible mechanism for its liver toxicity in excess, but human data are lacking to confirm this [R].

Methionine and Genetics

There are a few genes that might affect the amount of dietary methionine, but their impact on methionine levels in humans is poorly understood.

The MTR gene coded for the MTR enzyme, which converts homocysteine to methionine (see related SNPs). The MTHFR gene indirectly affects the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, by producing the active form of folate [R].

People that have a poorly functioning gene usually require more folate. Not getting adequate folate may raise homocysteine and lower methionine [R].

Lynch syndrome is a type of inherited cancer

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What Is L-Theanine?

L-theanine is an amino acid mostly found in tea leaves and fungi and used to help improve mood and lower stress, and to protect the brain and heart [R, R].

Theanine usually refers to L-theanine, which has more potential health benefits compared to d-theanine.

Natural Sources of L-Theanine

• Tea (especially green tea) [R, R]
• Bay bolete mushroom [R]

How Does L-Theanine Work?

L-theanine is able to cross the blood-brain barrier and affect the brain directly. In the brain, it may target brain chemicals that regulate arousal, anxiety, pleasure, and attention [R].

L-theanine increases brain serotonin and dopamine levels, which may improve memory and learning. It also increases the levels and effectiveness of GABA, the body’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter, and stimulates alpha brain wave activity, which may cause mental relaxation, concentration, and deep REM sleep [R, R, R, R, R, R].

L-theanine may also increase glutathione levels, the body’s most important antioxidant molecule [R].

Given its similarity with the neurotransmitter glutamate, L-theanine may exert its neuroprotective effects by interfering with its function [R].

Benefits of L-Theanine

There are several L-theanine supplements commercially available, especially to curb anxiety, improve cognitive function, and boost immunity. However, the FDA hasn’t approved them for any conditions due to the lack of solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing with L-theanine.

Possibly Effective for:

1) Brain Function

In a clinical trial on 30 healthy people, L-theanine improved verbal fluency and executive function. In 18 healthy people prone to anxiety, L-theanine improved attention [R, R].

In a clinical trial on 46 people with minor brain damage, a combination of L-theanine and green tea extract improved memory during a mental exercise. The combination improved recognition memory, attention

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What Is Lysine?

Lysine is an essential amino acid that plays an important role in the creation of proteins in the body. The human body is unable to produce lysine itself. This means that lysine must come from external sources — primarily food.

Some biological functions of lysine include [R, R, R]:

• Serving as a building block for proteins
• Playing an important role in histone modification (which affects gene expression)
• Providing structure to collagen
• Regulation of calcium levels

Lysine, as an oral supplement or lip balm, is often used for treating and preventing cold sores. Some other popular purported health benefits include improving athletic performance, canker sore symptoms, and schizophrenia symptoms.

However, there is a lack of clinical studies to support most of these claims. We’ll dive into the research concerning lysine in the following sections.

Snapshot

Proponents

• May help prevent or treat cold sores
• May help prevent or treat canker sores
• May reduce anxiety
• May reduce schizophrenia symptoms
• May help improve diabetes

Skeptics

• Lack of strong clinical research to support health claims
• Diet usually provides more than enough lysine
• Supplements may cause diarrhea and stomach pain

Purported Health Benefits Of Lysine

Possibly Effective For:

1) Treatment and Prevention of Herpes (Cold Sores)

Herpes labialis, more commonly known as cold sores, are caused by an infection by the herpes simplex virus. There is some evidence that lysine, taken orally, is possibly effective for treating or preventing cold sores.

A number of older clinical trials have found that oral lysine supplements may help prevent the recurrence of cold sores as well as improve the severity and duration of symptoms [R, R, R, R, R].

According to a more recent pilot study of 30 people, a specific herbal-based product containing lysine and zinc may also reduce the duration of cold sore episodes [R].

However, all of these studies had relatively small sample sizes. In one systematic review looking at various treatments for the prevention of cold sores, the researchers suggest that the evidence supporting lysine is of very low quality [R].

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What is L-Serine?

L-serine is an amino acid that plays an important role in the production of proteins, DNA, and cell membranes. It is a nonessential amino acid, meaning that we do not have to obtain it from the diet. The body can make enough serine on its own.

However, because of the diverse roles that serine plays in the body, dietary intake may offer certain benefits [R].

Today, L-serine is being researched to treat brain diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), chronic fatigue syndrome, and Alzheimer’s disease [R].

Serine is often taken with other amino acids such as glycine, arginine, tyrosine, and leucine. In patients suffering from seizures, glycine and serine are sometimes given together for their synergistic effects [R, R].

Two Different Forms

Serine is produced from the amino acid glycine and can exist as L-serine and D-serine. L-serine is still being researched in clinical trials for its effects but nutritional supplements are readily available.

D-serine is a neurotransmitter that plays a central role in information processing. Although it can also be purchased as a supplement, D-serine has poor absorption when taken orally. Scientists are researching it for schizophrenia [R, R].

L-serine is not FDA approved to treat any conditions, but it’s regarded as safe to consume as an additive [R].

Food Sources and Forms of Supplementation

The following high-protein foods are good sources of L-serine:

• Eggs
• Soy protein
• Fish
• Bacon
• Turkey

L-serine can also be taken as a supplement in powder form or as a capsule. It is also used topically on the skin [R, R].

Phosphatidylserine is a common supplement formed from L-serine and 2 fatty acid molecules. It can provide similar effects as a basic L-serine supplement. Although their effects are related, this article focuses on the benefits of L-serine alone [R].

Mechanism of Action

L-serine plays a role in forming of all five bases of DNA and RNA (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil) [R].

L-serine is converted to D-serine by an enzyme called serine-racemase. D-serine

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However, AAKG supplementation may also have added benefits for various diseases. Read on to find out more about how AAKG works, and 12 ways it’s claimed to help improve health.

What Is Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate (AAKG)?

Arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (AAKG) is a modified version of the amino acid arginine [R].

Alpha-ketoglutarate is an intermediate compound in the series of reactions that produce energy for the body. It is the source of the amino acids glutamate and glutamine. Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and can increase bone formation. Glutamine is the main source of energy for cell division [R, R].

To improve absorption in the stomach, alpha-ketoglutarate supplements come in the form of various salts. The most common combination is ornithine and alpha-ketoglutarate [R, R].

Alpha-ketoglutarate also regulates amino acid synthesis, energy production, and formation of free radicals. It functions as a messenger molecule in many chemical reactions in the body [R].

Glutamine enhances protein, muscle development, and immune function [R].

Arginine, also known as L-arginine, apart from being a component of proteins, stimulates the release of hormones such as insulin, glucagon, prolactin, and growth hormone.

Arginine also plays a critical role in maintaining normal blood pressure, heart function, and immunity. These functions are mediated through the production of nitric oxide. Arginine is broken down into ornithine and creatine. Ornithine is essential for cell growth and division, while creatine is important for muscle contraction [R].

Arginine is obtained from food and synthesized in the body. It is therefore referred to as a semi-essential amino acid. In healthy adults, food and synthesis in the body are sufficient to meet the necessary demands for this amino acid. These demands include tissue repair, synthesis of proteins, and maintenance of immune function [R].

During periods of rapid growth, physical stress, or injury, the supply of L-arginine may be insufficient to meet the body’s needs. During this time, L-arginine taken as a dietary supplement may help maintain muscle mass and improve bodily function [R].

Source: [R]

Supplementing L-arginine may improve the capacity for exercise. This improvement may be seen immediately after consuming arginine. Additionally, long-term improvements may be seen due to increased protein synthesis in muscles [R].

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What is DLPA?

DLPA (DL-phenylalanine) is a nutritional supplement with 2 different forms of phenylalanine in equal amounts: D- and L-phenylalanine. As you can see in the image above, they are “mirror images” of the same amino acid oriented differently in space [R].

L-phenylalanine is the active form in the human body; it builds proteins, neurotransmitters, and other crucial molecules. It’s an essential amino acid, which means we need to get it from foods such as eggs, meat, soy, nuts, and dairy [R, R].

D-phenylalanine is the synthetic form made in the lab. Although our bodies can’t use it as a building block, it produces specific health effects [R, R].

People take DLPA to boost energy, manage pain, balance mood, and more. Let’s see what the science and clinical evidence say about this supplement…

Snapshot

Proponents:

• May help with depression
• May reduce pain
• May boost mental clarity

Skeptics:

• Not well studied in humans
• Dangerous for people with phenylketonuria

How Does DLPA Work?

L-phenylalanine builds neurotransmitters such as dopamine and noradrenaline that control mood, mental health, heart rate, and other vital functions [R, R].

As a supplement, it may help with depression and skin pigmentation, while there’s insufficient evidence for its effects on weight control and attention disorders [R, R, R].

The body converts about ⅓ of D-phenylalanine into the L-form, while the rest remains unchanged and has unique effects. Supplementation with D-phenylalanine may increase natural opioids, enkephalins, and reduce inflammation [R, R].

Researchers have investigated its effects on chronic pain, mental disorders, and substance dependence, but the results weren’t convincing [R, R].

In theory, DLPA should deliver the combined health benefits of both forms with fewer side effects, but there’s no substantial evidence to back this up.

DLPA Benefits

Possibly Effective:

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What Is Beta-Alanine?

Beta-alanine (β-Alanine) is an amino acid naturally found in muscles and the brain. Together with histidine, it forms carnosine, which helps reduce acid build-up during exercise. Despite mixed evidence of success, it is sold as a performance-enhancing supplement under names like Carnosyn and its slow release version, SR CarnoSyn [R].

Beta-alanine is most effective during anaerobic exercise (intense and exhaustive exercise that causes lactic acid to accumulate in the muscles), such as high-intensity interval training or sprinting. Most notably, it delays fatigue during repeated bouts of intense exercise with short recovery periods [R].

Women and vegetarians have lower amounts of muscle carnosine than men and meat-eaters, respectively. Furthermore, body carnosine naturally decreases with age. These groups may particularly benefit from beta-alanine supplementation [R, R].

The only confirmed side effect is tingling. However, lower or time-released doses can reduce this effect [R].

Mechanisms

Beta-alanine is an amino acid formed in the liver or by gut microbes [R, R].

It binds to histidine in muscles and the brain to form carnosine. Beta-alanine increases carnosine in muscles and the brain, and helps muscles resist acid build-up [R, R, R].

It also acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator. For instance, beta-alanine inhibits the uptake of the amino acid taurine in cells; this can cause oxidative stress, cell damage, and respiratory problems [R, R].

Furthermore, beta-alanine is a competitive GABA antagonist (blocker) that also inhibits nerve cell activity [R].

Health Benefits of Beta-alanine

Possibly Effective for:

1) Athletic Performance

In two meta-analyses of 18,000 people, beta-alanine improved exercise power and capacity, but not performance. Beta-alanine was most effective for exercise lasting 30 seconds to 10 minutes [R, R].

Success varied due to the athletic condition of the subjects, and the type of exercise or sport tested. For instance, beta-alanine improved short-lasting and high-intensity exercise (anaerobic exercise, lasting 1 to 4 min) [R].

Furthermore, beta-alanine improved resistance training volume and performance for athletes who play in team sports, which may

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What is Carnitine?

Overview

Carnitine is an amino acid found in nearly every cell of the body. It is a generic name for a variety of compounds such as L-carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, and propionyl-L-carnitine. The three are chemically similar and some of their benefits overlap. However, they have some distinct mechanisms of action and uses.

• Acetyl-L-carnitine is generally used to improve brain functioning and cognition [R].
• L-carnitine is used to increase energy levels and physical performance [R, R].
• Propionyl-L-carnitine is used to boost circulation [R].

Scientists think that all forms of carnitine play a vital role in the production of energy. Carnitine is said to help turn body fat into energy. It might also get rid of toxic compounds from the mitochondria to prevent their buildup. Carnitine is produced by the liver and kidneys and stored in muscle, brain, and heart tissue – all of which use fatty acids as energy [R].

You’ll get carnitine from meat, fish, poultry, and milk. People with genetic disorders, chronic diseases, and those on a vegetarian diet can often benefit from supplemental carnitine. The same is true for underweight and premature babies. Other conditions that cause carnitine deficiency include angina (chest pain) and intermittent claudication (cramping leg pain from blocked arteries) [R].

The FDA has approved the use of L-carnitine (by mouth or intravenously) treating L-carnitine deficiency caused by certain genetic diseases, end-stage kidney disease, and other disorders. It’s known under the brand name Carnitor.

However, other medical uses of carnitine supplements have not been approved by the FDA. Supplements generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

Snapshot

Proponents

• Effective for L-carnitine deficiency
• Supports mitochondrial health and energy function
• Allegedly supports liver and brain health
• May improve PCOS in women and semen quality and fertility in men

Skeptics

• Many popular uses are not supported by evidence
• May contribute to heart disease by metabolizing TMAO
• Can cause nausea or stomach upset
• Long-term use may cause oxidative stress in the liver and blood
• Affects thyroid function

Health Benefits of Carnitine

Effective for:

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What is Acetyl-L-Carnitine?

Amino Acid Fuel

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC or ALCAR) is an amino acid that fuels energy production in your cells and supports nerve function. It supplies the acetyl group for burning fats in your mitochondria (fatty acid oxidation) and producing acetylcholine [R, R].

Your muscles and heart tissue stock different forms of carnitine as energy reserves [R].

Foods

Meat and other animal foods contain L-carnitine, but your liver and kidneys can also produce it from two amino acids: lysine and methionine. An enzyme called carnitine acetyltransferase (CRAT) then turns L-carnitine into acetyl-L-carnitine and vice versa [R].

Vegetarians consume less carnitine from the foods they eat, however, they maintain normal carnitine levels in the blood. How? The theory is that vegetarians are able to adapt to diets low in carnitine and absorb it more efficiently [R].

Snapshot

Proponents:

• Combats depression
• Helps with Alzheimer’s disease
• May reverse brain and nerve damage
• Improves fertility and sexual function
• Reduces fatigue

Skeptics:

• May cause stomach upset
• May raise the risk of heart disease
• May suppress thyroid hormones

Who Needs It?

Under normal conditions, your body will produce sufficient amounts of carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine. However, the following may impair the process and raise your risk of carnitine deficiency [R, R, R, R]:

• Genetic disorders
• Old age
• Kidney and liver disorders
• Antibiotics and drugs for seizures
• Diabetes and obesity
• Long-term fasting or calorie restriction
• Premature birth

Do athletes and bodybuilders need more carnitine? Not quite. However, they might benefit from supplementation because higher levels of l-carnitine in the blood and muscles increase blood flow and oxygen supply, enhancing muscle recovery after exercise [R].

Most people use acetyl-L-carnitine to enhance their cognition and rev up energy levels. Clinical research confirms the benefits of acetyl-l-carnitine for the brain, especially in older people. We’ll cover the main ALCAR benefits below [R].

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What is N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine?

A Form of L-Tyrosine

L-tyrosine is an amino acid your body uses to make proteins, neurotransmitters, and other vital compounds. Your body can make it from another amino acid, phenylalanine. You can also get it from good protein sources such as cheese, meat, eggs, and beans [R, R, R].

N-acetyl-L-tyrosine (NALT or NAT) is a derivative of L-tyrosine promoted for its supposedly higher absorption and efficacy. People use it as a supplement to boost their physical and mental performance. Still, science supports only a fraction of these claims and anecdotal benefits.

Snapshot

Proponents

• Boosts cognition and alertness under stress
• May improve mood
• May increase thyroid hormones
• May speed up metabolism

Skeptics

• Only partly metabolized into L-tyrosine
• May cause headaches and fatigue
• May worsen cognition in the elderly
• Interacts with L-DOPA and thyroid medications
• Not well studied in humans

N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine Benefits

The potential health benefits discussed below refer to L-tyrosine if not stated otherwise. Although NALT is a source of L-tyrosine, it may not have the same health effects.

How It Works

A portion of ingested NALT turns into L-tyrosine, an amino acid with promising nootropic and stimulant effects. L-tyrosine increases neurotransmitters known as catecholamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine [R].

They play central roles in your mental health, cognition, behavior, and stress response. The body needs a steady supply of tyrosine to maintain their production and keep physical and cognitive performance at peak levels [R, R].

Possibly Effective:

Cognition, Memory & Wakefulness

In multiple clinical trials, L-tyrosine was able to boost cognition, alertness, and memory in stressful and demanding situations [

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What is Phenylalanine?

Phenylalanine is an amino acid that builds proteins, neurotransmitters, and other crucial molecules in your body. The body can’t produce phenylalanine, which makes it an essential amino acid we need to get from food [R, R].

Nutritional supplements can contain different forms of phenylalanine with unique mechanisms and health effects – we’ll dive into details about each one.

Structure

Phenylalanine molecule has 2 different forms, L- and D-phenylalanine, which are “mirror images” with the same structure. As you can see in the image above, they are only differently oriented in space [R].

L-phenylalanine is the active form that occurs naturally in a variety of foods. Your body uses it to make proteins and other molecules [R, R].

D-phenylalanine is the synthetic form made in the lab. Your body partly converts it to the L-form or eliminates it via urine, but it also has some specific health effects discussed below [R, R].

Supplements can contain either form or a mixture of their equal amounts, known as DLPA (DL-phenylalanine).

Snapshot

Proponents:

• Helps with vitiligo
• May help with depression
• Supports fat burning
• May reduce substance dependence

Skeptics:

• May cause nausea
• Dangerous for people with phenylketonuria
• Has mixed effects on blood pressure
• Interacts with Parkinson’s disease treatment

Phenylalanine Foods

Most protein-rich foods contain decent amounts of L-phenylalanine. These include [R, R]:

• Eggs
• Milk and dairy products
• Legumes (beans and peanuts)
• Sunflower and sesame seeds
• Red meat and poultry
• Fish

Eating a variety of good protein sources will grant you an optimal phenylalanine intake.

People with an inborn metabolic disorder called phenylketonuria (PKU) should avoid all foods and supplements high in phenylalanine (more details in the “Side Effects and Precautions” section) [R].

Health Benefits

The post Phenylalanine: Potential Benefits + Foods & Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

Read this post to learn about the science behind glutamine.

What Is Glutamine?

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body. The naturally occurring form and the form that our body uses is L-glutamine [R].

As a supplement, glutamine is popular among gym enthusiasts and athletes, though science doesn’t back up the use of glutamine for enhancing exercise performance or post-exercise recovery.
Additionally, glutamine supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use. Supplements generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

Glutamine is not an essential amino acid, but it is considered to be conditionally essential. Usually, glutamine is produced in sufficient amounts in the body. However, in some cases of stress, inflammation, and injuries, some bodily functions may use much more glutamine than usual [R, R].

Our muscles account for 70% of all glutamine production in the body [R].

The main organs that use glutamine are muscle, kidneys, liver, and small intestine [R].

Scientists think glutamine is a critical amino acid for the immune system and for keeping the nitrogen levels in your body in check. It makes up to 60% of the free amino acids in the bones [R].

Overview of Glutamine Uses

• A building block for body proteins
• Fuel for cells that line the gut
• Fuel for immune cells, such as macrophages
• Maintaining nitrogen balance
• Preventing the burning of other amino acids for energy

L-Glutamine Purported Benefits

Effective for

1) Sickle Cell Disease

L-glutamine was recently approved by the FDA for the management of sickle cell anemia. It reduces acute complications of sickle cell disease in adults and children 5 years of age and older [R].

Possibly Effective for:

2) Burns

Glutamine given through a feeding tube or intravenously (IV) likely reduces the risk of developing severe infections in people with severe burns. Through a feeding tube, it may also reduce the chance of death in this population. IV glutamine likely does not decrease the risk of death [R, R].

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What Is Leucine?

Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid that is sold as a supplement. The other two BCAAs are valine and isoleucine but leucine is the most popular of the three as a bodybuilding supplement.

Leucine supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use. Supplements generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

Leucine is an essential amino acid, meaning that it cannot be produced in the body and needs to be taken in through diet. It increases energy and protein (therefore, muscle) production [R, R].

Similarly to many other amino acids, leucine is found in many foods that are high in protein. Examples include meats (such as fish, chicken, and turkey), dairy products (such as yogurt and cheese), and soybeans. Other foods like eggs, nuts, seeds, and fruit also contain leucine, but to a lesser extent.

Leucine can be classified as:

• L-leucine is the natural version of the amino acid, is found in the proteins of the body and is the main form used as a supplement.
• D-leucine is the mirror image of L-leucine, which is created in the laboratory and is also used as a supplement.

Despite the popularity of leucine among gym enthusiasts, the science to back up most of its uses is weak.

Purported Health Benefits of Leucine

Possibly Effective for:

1) Brain Function in Liver Disease

Oral branched-chain amino acids likely improve symptoms and liver function in people with poor brain function caused by liver disease (hepatic encephalopathy) [R, R, R].

Some evidence suggests that branched-chain amino acids may also improve cognition in people with declining brain function due to liver disease. However, not all studies had positive findings. Additionally, branched-chain amino acids likely don’t reduce the chance of death in people with this condition [R].

2) Post-Exercise Muscle Recovery

Solid evidence supports the use of branched-chain amino acids (including leucine) for reducing fatigue and exertion after prolonged or intense exercise [R].

Exercise leads to branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) breakdown, especially in the muscles [R].

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